The heritage of the Soviet Union

Two decades ago many people thought the number of democratic countries would increase significantly in Europe. The dissolution of the Soviet Union was regarded as a potent impetus for countries of Central and Eastern Europe to develop into democratic Western-like states. People in Western Europe and North America as well as people of Central and Eastern Europe strived for democratic societies in the post-Soviet regions.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The heritage of the Soviet Union specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, now it is evident that Europe has hardly been ‘enriched’ by truly democratic states as countries of Central and Eastern Europe developed in semi-democratic or even authoritarian states. Researchers single out different political, economic, cultural and historical reasons for such trends. The future of these countries is also seen differently. Clearly, apart from political, cultur al, historical and socio-economic factors, geopolitical situation will play an important role in the development of these countries. It is necessary to note that the countries of Central and Eastern Europe have much in common. Roberts (2006) notes that Communist heritage affected the countries in quite a specific way making the states more centralized and people less politically active. At that, cultural peculiarities of the countries and economic factors resulted in different types of democracies which have been developed in this or that country of Central and Eastern Europe. Researchers suggest different classifications of the democracies in the region. However, it is possible to note that all of these classifications are based on the level of authoritarian rule in a country. It is possible to exploit the classification used in in the study implemented by Freedom House (Freedom House 2012). According to this study, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe can be divided into th e following groups: consolidated democracies (Estonia, Slovenia, Latvia, Czech Republic, Poland, Lithuania, Slovakia and Hungary), semi-consolidated democracies (Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, Serbia, Macedonia and Montenegro), hybrid regimes (Albania, Bosnia, Ukraine, Georgia and Moldova), semi-consolidated authoritarian regimes (Kosovo and Armenia) and consolidated authoritarian regimes (Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan). Thus, to understand the future of these countries, it is important to consider political systems within the countries and define factors which resulted in the development of such regimes. Roberts (2006) analyses the democracies in terms of the variables suggested by Lijphart. One of the variables is centralization of power within democratic powers. Roberts (2006) points out that in the majority of cases democratic states do not have a very strict centralized power. However, when it comes to the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, they are all unitary and centralized.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the one hand, centralization cannot be regarded as a negative feature as it is often associated with well-organised structures which cooperate and contribute to the development of countries. Furthermore, post-communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe are rather small. They are characterised by ethnical homogeneity. Therefore, centralization is but natural for these countries. Nonetheless, centralization which is a characteristic feature of the countries in Central and Eastern Europe leads to negative outcomes. This centralization prevents proper cooperation between different bodies within the state. In federal states, local authorities interact with federal bodies which, in their turn, cooperate with each other. Thus, needs of all stakeholders are addressed to the fullest. Centr alization is deprived of such a comprehensive cooperation which leads to a gap between the power and people. It is important to note that centralization is not only caused by ethnical homogeneity. The Soviet Union was a highly centralised state and the Communist rule can still be traced in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (Roberts 2006). Roberts (2006) claims that the countries employ the pattern used in the Soviet Union where centralization was characterised by a variety of negative features. First, there was almost no cooperation among different bodies of the state. Likewise, the countries of the post-Soviet region show lack of cooperation between their institutions. The centre often imposes requirements that should be strictly followed by regions, though the centre often does not have comprehensive information on the matter. Thus, it is possible to note that centralization has become one of distinctive features of democracy in the countries in question. Apart from cent ralization, Roberts (2006) singles out another peculiarity of these democracies. The researcher notes that the countries are highly consensus, i.e. their governments are characterised by: [A] multiparty system, the predominance of minority or surplus majority cabinets, a rough balance between the executive and legislature, a low level of disproportionality in electoral results, and strong corporatism. (Roberts 2006, p. 39)Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The heritage of the Soviet Union specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Notably, the number of parties in these countries significantly exceeds the number of parties in established democracies. Again, there are two sides of this plurality. On the one hand, a lot of different groups can be represented in legislative bodies of the countries. This can be regarded as a positive sign of democracy as needs of larger numbers of people can be met. Therefore, it is possible to state that former Communist republics managed to evolve into democratic states (Rupnik 1999). However, the Communist heritage affected the development of democracies which differ from established democracies of Western Europe. The rule of a single party made people unprepared to the availability of a number of political forces. Thus, this kind of plurality is very negative in nature. The electoral systems of the countries in question are characterised by wasted votes. There are many parties and people often give their votes to countries which have no chances to enter the parliament. These wasted votes are often used by elite groups which obtain more seats in legislative bodies. Furthermore, the abundance of political parties is also associated with people’s unawareness of political agendas of this or that party. This unawareness makes people alienate from politics. It makes them less politically active. It is also necessary to point out that people are somewhat alienated as they still feel distrust towards their governments. Bideleux (2007) claims that the autocratic rule of the Communist Party in the USSR made people see the power as something alienated from people and real issues. People of Central and Eastern Europe did not rely on the support of the political forces and never participated in the political life of their countries as the Communist Party was a single ruling force which did not take into account people’s will and needs. After the dissolution of the USSR, the countries had a very difficult period when political forces were unable to take control over the country’s development. Non-state agents (criminals) had a significant influence which spread to almost all spheres of people’s life. All these factors contributed greatly to development of people’s distrust towards political forces in the country as people have been witnesses of these forces’ inability to cooperate and lead the country. Apart from peop le’s alienation, this kind of plurality is proved to be ineffective as political parties have too different agendas and can hardly cooperate with each other (Way Levitskiy 2007).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The lack of cooperation and the abundance of political parties as well as people’s alienation can be explained. In the first place, the Soviet Union was a state ruled by a single Communist Party. It is quite natural that after the dissolution of the USSR the former Soviet republics were striving for plurality. The rule of a single force proved to be authoritarian and ineffective. Therefore, numerous political parties focusing on specific groups of people or particular issues have appeared in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (Vejvoda Kaldor 2002). People of the countries in question tried to exploit patterns used in Western Europe, but they deemed a greater number of parties would positively affect the development of democracy in their countries. At this point, it is important to pay attention to political struggle in the countries. It is very suggestive. In the countries with consolidated authoritarian regimes (e.g. Belarus or Kazakhstan) there is almost no strong opposition. Interestingly, Levitsky and Way (2010, pp. 183-184) note that â€Å"authoritarian breakdown in Serbia (2000), Georgia (2003), and Ukraine (2004)† can be regarded as a sign of the rise of opposition and development of new â€Å"opposition tactics† and formation of movements which â€Å"toppled non-democratic governments (the so-called color [sic] revolutions)†. Admittedly, these colour revolutions did bring some changes, though they should be seen as a sign of unpreparedness of people of Central and Eastern Europe to exploit effective protest tactics which could have positive results. Clearly, political forces of the new states were unprepared to cooperate and even protest properly as the Soviet rule presupposed strict obedience rather than cooperation (Berg-Schlosser 2007). The years of the Soviet rule show that protests were always suppressed by the Party. People even failed to develop proper protest tactics as all attempts were always suppressed. Roberts (2006) also notes that people are now very hostile to Communist Party especially in the Balkans or in such countries as the Czech Republic or Poland. This contributes to the lack of cooperation among the parties as some political forces in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe are still associated with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Roberts (2006) states that even effective policies are often ignored if they were initiated by parties associated with the Communist Party of the USSR. Besides, Roberts (2006, p. 51) stresses that â€Å"communism had eliminated almost all traces of civil and economic society, the source of the bargaining partners for corporatism†. This leads to the short-lived governments which are unable to follow a particular political trajectory. Another distinctive feature of democracies in Central and Eastern Europe is corruption. The corruption is a result of the unstable political situation in the countries. Clearly, corruption also contributes to the development of distrust to the political forces. Again, the corruption is not only a product of the difficult times of the 1990s, but it is a product of the Soviet system which was also rather corrupted (Levitsky Way 2010). There were some interest groups and certain political elite which made major (or rather all) decisions. Therefore, it is clear that countries of Central and Eastern Europe have developed quite specific democracies due to the Soviet heritage. There are lots of features which are common for the countries. However, there are also many differences. These differences are not based on cultural peculiarities only. Geopolitical factors significantly affected development of the countries of the region. Thus, some countries managed to develop more established democracies whereas some countries made almost no progress since the early 1990s. As far as the most democratic states are concerned, they were established in Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Poland, Cze ch Republic, Lithuania, Slovakia and Hungary (Freedom House 2012). There are several reasons for these nations’ success. In the first place, these countries managed to break connections with Russia quite quickly. These countries managed to choose a particular West-oriented trajectory. It is necessary to note that the connections were not very close historically. Therefore, the countries had no difficulties with this process. The choice of these countries was appreciated by such established democracies as the USA, the UK, France, Germany, etc. These countries provided financial aid and other types of support to the new post-Soviet countries which had made the choice. The financial aid enabled countries to develop economically which, in its turn, led to political stability. Admittedly, not all post-Soviet countries enjoyed stability and economic growth. Such states as Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, Serbia, Macedonia and Montenegro were not that successful (Freedom House 2012). How ever, these countries failed to develop consolidated democracies due to ethnical strife. Military conflicts led to unstable political and economic situation in the region. Nonetheless, these countries managed to overcome the difficulties and political forces managed to start cooperating. Now these countries are developing quite rapidly. Though, there are various issues to address, it is possible to trace positive trends in the countries’ development. Besides, these countries also obtain support of Western democracies which leads to development of economic and political stability in the region. Hybrid regimes in Albania, Bosnia, Ukraine, Georgia and Moldova as well as semi-consolidated authoritarian regimes in Kosovo and Armenia developed due to a number of reasons (Freedom House 2012). For instance, Albania, Bosnia and Kosovo suffered from a number of ethnical conflicts. These conflicts led to the lack of stability which, in its turn, resulted in a slow development. As for Uk raine, Georgia and Moldova, these countries still have quite close connections with Russia, i.e. with the old Soviet model of centralized power where Russia still dictates certain requirements. Notably, Moldova and Georgia are more successful in their attempts to become free from the influence of the former central power. These countries are trying to change the trajectory of their development. These countries also obtain assistance from Western democracies. As for Ukraine, the country is still under a significant influence as Russia still interferes in the home and foreign policy of Ukraine. The country has not still chosen the trajectory and the elements of Western democratic models are intermingled with elements of Soviet-Russian authoritarian regime. Finally, consolidated authoritarian regimes developed in Belarus (as well as in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) due to the fact that these countries still have close connections with Russ ia and still exploit old Soviet models. In these countries a specific elite group is in power. For instance, Belarusian President Lukashenko has been in office since 1994. Lukashenko employs authoritarian ways to rule the country. The country is characterised by the absence of significant protest movements. There were several attempts to overthrow the existing regime, but all attempts failed. The centralization is especially vivid in this state. Notably, economic situation in the country is relatively stable. However, judicial power is a manifestation of the will of the groups in power (Roberts 2006). There are also lots of cases of violation of people’s civil rights. It is also important to note that there are no significant political changes in the state. All these historical facts and contemporary trends can help predict future trajectory change in the post-Soviet countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Clearly, consolidated democracies of the region will continue their c ooperation with Western states. Such countries as Poland can be regarded as a very good example of a country which is developing rapidly. Thus, judicial system of this country is considered to be the best in the world (Roberts 2006). Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Poland, Czech Republic, Lithuania, Slovakia and Hungary are characterised by a significant change. These countries show traits of democratisation in all spheres. People of these countries have already become politically active. They participate in elections and they take part in the process of decision making. What is more, people of these countries have trust in their government and other political forces. The people of these countries feel they do influence the development of their country (Berg-Schlosser 2007). Of course, this is one of the signs of the democratic state. Notably, development of democratic state will also lead to stability in the country. Furthermore, economic support of the Western countries will help the f ormer Soviet republics become in a row with established democracies of Western Europe. It is possible to state that the future trajectory of these countries is unlikely to change, which will positively affect the development of these countries. As for such countries as Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Moldova and Georgia; the situation in these countries is not that stable and the trajectory of their development can change (Berg-Schlosser 2007). However, this change is also unlikely. These countries show quite definite Western orientation. They employ Western models of development. There are signs of democratisation in all spheres. Remarkably, the power has restored people’s trust which is very important. People start actively participating in the political life of the state. One of the possible hazards to the democratic development of the countries (especially Croatia and Serbia) is still ethnic strife. Economic crises can also cause a change of the trajectory. At that, assistance of Western democracies can prevent both economic constraints and change of trajectory. Even when an economic crisis breaks out in one of these countries, the countries will still remain focused on Western models of development which proved to be effective. Finally, the countries which can change trajectories are Belarus and Ukraine. As far as the former is concerned, there are signs of growing discontent with the present regime. The rising number of protests in the country can be regarded as a sign of an upcoming change. Though there is still lack of such democratic features as free media, people still get to know about the protest movements which can eventually lead to a change. At that, the protest movements are also West-oriented, i.e. protestors require democratic development of the country. Furthermore, tension between Belarus and Russia can also become an impetus to change the political trajectory. Finally, economic decline can lead to the grow th of people’s discontent, which, in its turn, will lead to changes. As far as Ukraine is concerned, the political situation in the country is quite unstable (Berg-Schlosser 2007). The power cannot gain people’s trust. Corruption is another hazard to the democratic development of the country. There is still no cooperation between political forces within the country. The major political forces of the country have quite opposite agendas and orientations. Thus, it is quite difficult to predict which force will gain more power. Upcoming elections can provide some insights into possible scenarios of the country’s development. However, existing trends show that the country is likely to choose the Western model of development and will continue democratic development. In conclusion, it is necessary to point out that the heritage of the Soviet Union is still manifested in the political systems of the post-Soviet countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Many countries of this region still exploit Soviet models of governance. Thus, the countries are highly centralised which is not only a result of quite small size of the states, but is also a product of extremely centralized power in the Soviet Union. Corruption which is a significant issue to be addressed in the region is also a product of the former Soviet rule. The abundance of political parties is another distinctive feature of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. At that, people and political forces of the countries are hostile to the Communist party and parties associated with it. This often negatively affects the process of decision making. The tension between parties within the countries leads to the lack of cooperation which, in its turn, prevents countries from proper democratic development. It is also important to note that the countries of the region in question have certain peculiarities. Thus, some countries are rapidly developing employing Western models. These countries obtain assistance from Western democracies. At the same time, they have almost no connections with Russia which still exploits authoritarian models. However, some countries are developing at a slower pace due to cultural peculiarities. Ethnical strife and economic constraints have prevented these countries from democratization. Finally, there is still the country (Belarus) which employs authoritarian models. However, irrespective of certain factors, it is possible to trace definite trends which show gradual democratisation of the countries in Central and Eastern Europe. More so, it is possible to trace the trajectory chosen by the countries. The vast majority of the countries have chosen democratization and Western models of development. These countries are highly unlikely to change the trajectory of their development. However, such countries as Belarus and Ukraine can change the trajectories. Though, it is also necessary to note that these countries are likely to continue democratization exploiting patterns of established democracies. Therefore, it is possible to state that Central and Eastern Europe can soon (within several decades) consist of democratic countries only. Admittedly, the Soviet rule had a great impact on each country and it still influences the development of these countries. Nonetheless, the countries start exploiting patterns used by established democracies of Western Europe. The former Soviet states of Central and Eastern Europe are gradually becoming well-established democratic countries, therefore, reshaping the geopolitical situation in Europe. Reference List Berg-Schlosser, D 2007, ‘The quality of post-communist democracy’, in S White, J Batt PG Lewis (ed.), Developments in Central and East European Politics, Duke University Press, Hampshire. Bideleux, R 2007, ‘Making democracy work’ in the Eastern half of Europe: explaining and conceptualizing divergent trajectories of post-communist democratization’, Perspe ctives on European Politics and Society 8.2, pp. 109-130. Freedom House 2003, Nations in Transit 2012, https://freedomhouse.org/report/nations-transit/nations-transit-2012. Levitsky, S Way, LA 2010, Competitive authoritarianism: hybrid regimes after the Cold War, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Roberts, A 2006, ‘What kind of democracy is emerging in Eastern Europe?’, Post-Soviet Affairs 22.1, pp. 37-64. Rupnik, J 1999, ‘The postcommunist divide’, Journal of Democracy 10.1, pp. 57-62. Vejvoda, I Kaldor, M 2002, Democratization in Central and Eastern Europe, Continuum International Publishing Group, London. Way, LA Levitsky, S 2007, ‘Linkage, leverage, and the post-Communist Divide’, East European Politics and Societies 21.1, pp. 48-66. This essay on The heritage of the Soviet Union was written and submitted by user Eva Ross to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Infant Vs Believers Baptism Theology Religion Essay The Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible argues that baptism is a rite using water as a symbol of religious purification. The origin of Christian baptism is to be found within Judaism, and it is improbable to suggest the derivation of the Christian rite from the mystery cults. At first term baptism meant the provision of cultic purity, and then in the NT it was extended to express the complete renewal of human existence. The rite of baptism with water as a symbol of entry into the Christian community was practiced from the day of Pentecost. The Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible links baptism with repentance and with the reception of the Holy Spirit. The fullest NT exposition of the meaning of baptism is to be found in the Pauline letters. 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According to the Dictionary of New Testament Theology baptism is administered in the name of Jesus Christ; it is for the forgiveness of sins and with a view to the gift of the Holy Spirit. Personally for me, baptism is a very intimate topic. I was baptized, when I was an infant. Actually, everybody in my family was baptized in the early childhood. My mother is a proponent of infant baptizing, as she supposes that children should be taught about Christian living from the time they are born and during their entire life. Her argument is that we are all Gods children and there is no need to wait to become a real Christian. Parents should foster love for God and Bible in children in order to be thankful to God for His tremendous grace, generosity and love He has for us. I also see baptizing as the sign of love and repentance. Moreover, Im thankful to my parents for their decision to baptize me as an infant, as I lived my entire life with the Christian living in my mind. We need to understand the doctrine of baptism in order to live a faithful Christian life. Moreover, the understanding of the doctrine of Baptism is needed as it has a great influence in the church today. When people are baptized, they identify themselves with Christs death, burial and resurrection (Stringer, M. D., 2005). The proof for such an assumption can be seen in Romans 6:3-4: Or dont you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life. So, baptism is an important rite, which signifies our new life in Jesus Christ. Moreover, we should understand infant baptizing, as this concept suggests being a Christian from the time of birth till death. Infant baptizing is the best view on the doctrine of baptism, as it provides the opportunity of faithful living in Jesus Christ from the early childhood. Infant baptism should be undertaken in order to foster love for God, faith, repentance and living by Ten Commandments in children since early childhood. There are two main views on the time, when the person should be baptized: credobaptism and paedobaptism. According to Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry, credobaptism is the practice of baptizing only those who are able to make a profession of faith. Credobaptism is also called Believers baptism. Credobaptists are the proponents of the baptism by immersion. Believers baptism view in based on the assumption that baptism should be given: 1) to all those who have learned repentance and amendment of life; 2) who believe truly that their sins are taken away by Christ; 3) to all those who walk in the resurrection of Jesus Christ, and wish to be buried with him in death, so that they may be resurrected with him; 4) to all those who with this significance request baptism of us and demand it for themselves (Baptist Roots: a Reader in the Theology of a Christian People, 1999.). Moreover, the proponents of believers baptism argue that there is no direct evidence in the NT for the bapti sm of infants. Moreover, during the time of the NT only adults were baptized, when they showed their faith and repentance. Moreover, the proponents of believers baptizing argue that linguistically the word baptism means immersion and indirectly implies that baptism is not for infants. Another argument in favor of believers baptism is that whenever baptisms are recorded, the text always specifies that the baptized come up out of the water, again demonstrating baptism by immersion (Wright, D. F. et all, 2009). Moreover, in Romans 6:3-4 and Colossians 2:12 baptism pictures the believers death to the old life and regeneration and conversion to newness of life. The proponents of believers baptizing argue that being plunged under the water and raised up from the water symbolizes the spiritual reality, a reality that is only possible for believers who are trusting in Christ and indwelt by the Spirit. According to Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry, paedobaptism is the practice of baptizing infants. The first explicit reference to infant baptism in Christian history is that made by Irenaeus, about A.D. 180, who speaks of all who through Christ are born again to God, infants and children and boys and youths and old men, born again to God being a technical phrase meaning baptism (Dictionary of New Testament Theology, 1989). The belief that the apostles commanded the baptism of infants as well as of responsible persons is attested as early as Origen (3rd century A.D.), and apart from some notable exceptions it became the unquestioned conviction of Christendom until the present century. The proponents of the paedobaptism argue that despite the lack of direct evidence of the infant baptism in the NT, the indirect evidence of infant baptism can be read in various lines of the NT. The proponents of infant baptism argue that baptism in the NT is closely related to the circumcisio n in the OT. J. Jeremias has argued that Paul may have been instrumental in thus putting forward baptism as the Christian equivalent of Jewish circumcision (Colossians 2:11-12). Moreover, the argument for infant baptism states that the NT has a lot of evidence for household baptism and according to the evidence found in Stauffer, in the contemporary use of the word household young children were specifically included (Wright, D. F. et all, 2009). I am the proponent of infant baptizing, as I see this type of baptizing more reasonable within the Christian theology. I suppose that people should be baptized as infants, so that they can become Christians, be taught about faith, love and repentance, and in order to give them an opportunity to live a consistent Christian life. The most influential argument for infant baptism is the relationship between the circumcision in the OT and the baptism in the NT. In order to understand, how these sacraments relate, we should conduct a deep analysis. The Scripture teaches that baptism signifies the forgiveness and purification from sins, and spiritual resurrection. The Scripture also says that we are baptized in Jesus Christ. Moreover, baptism is seal with which we witness that the Lord is our God and that we are His people. The OT says that the Lord wants to be Abrahams God and God of his descendant by giving the covenant of circumcision. Moreover, the Lord says that He wants to see Abraham to be in wholeness and immaculacy. Here we can see that death and resurrection are implied in circumcision. So, the circumcision is the same as baptism, as they both include the promise of the forgiveness of sins and the resurrection after the death. Jesus Christ is the basis for both circumcision and baptism, as He represents the fulfillment of the Promise. Now the conclusion can be made that everything what belongs to circumcision, belongs to baptism as well (except the visual rite). The Lord demands the circumcision of the infants in Genesis 17:12: For the generations to come every male among you who is eight days old must be circumcised, including those born in your household or bought with money from a foreigner-those who are not your offspring. So, thanks to the established relationship between circumcision and baptism it is reasonable to suggest, that the circumcision of the infants relate to infant baptism. Another argument for infant baptism can be derived from Luke 18:15-16, where Jesus states: let the little children come to me, and do not hinder them, for the kingdom of God belongs to such as these. If Jesus allows infants to come to Him, in such a way he allows infant baptism as this is the sign of our communication and connection with Jesus Christ. The opponents of infant baptism argue that Jesus Christ invited grown up children but mistakenly called them infants, as He asked them to come to Him. However, this argument is disproved, as the Scripture refers infants to the children, who should be carried in the arms. So, in these verse we should understand the verb to come in the meaning of the verb to approach. Another argument against infant baptism is that Luke 18:15-16 says that the kingdom of God belongs to such as these (infants) but not to these (infants). However, this argument is easily and logically disproven, as Jesuss reason for allowing infants to approach Him is that t he kingdom of God belongs to them. This verse should be interpreted as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ for the kingdom of God belongs to these and such as these. The passage of Luke 18:15-17 is crucial to the understanding of infant baptism. Luke 18:15 : People were also bringing babies to Jesus for him to place his hands on them. When the disciples saw this, they rebuked them. According to Clarkes Commentary, it was a common custom among the Jews to lay their hands on the heads of those whom they blessed, or for whom they prayed. This seems to have been done by way of dedication or consecration to God the person being considered as the sacred property of God even after. Often God added a testimony of his approbation, by communicating some extraordinary influence on the Holy Spirit. This rite has been long practiced among Christians, when persons are appointed to any sacred office. However, the consecration of children to God has grown out of use. The second part of the verse can be interpreted from the view that the disciples rebuked the parents, as they considered infants too young to receive good. Luke 18:16-17: But Jesus called the child ren to him and said, Let the little children come to me, and do not hinder them, for the kingdom of God belongs to such as these. Truly I tell you, anyone who will not receive the kingdom of God like a little child will never enter it. This verse shows that Christ loves infants simplicity and innocence. According to Clarkes Commentary, Jesus has sanctified infants very age by passing through it himself the holy Jesus was once a little child. Moreover, Jesuss emphasis on the big part of the kingdom of God composed of such should be taken literally; and only those who resemble little children should be received into it. According to Commentary on the Whole Bible, in these two verses our Lord meant to inform us, that seeing grown people must become childlike in order to be capable of the Kingdom of God, therefore they should not hinder infants from coming to Him, and therefore He took up and blessed the infants themselves. All in all Jesus words about little children provide an example of the attitude essential for receiving Gods grace. Childlike qualities such as trust, openness, and the absence of holier-than-thou attitudes are presented in this view. This shows that Jesus had compassion even on infants too young to understand the difference between right and wrong (The Expositors Bible Commentary, 1984). This passage indirectly bears on question of infant baptism. The major argument of the opponents of infant baptism is the fact that people should be baptized after conscious understanding of the responsibility they take. Moreover, they argue that people should be baptized after they acknowledge their faith. However, the opponents of infant baptism argue that leaving an infant until the time, when he/she will acknowledge his/her faith, means leaving the infants to be the children of Adam for a period of time. We experience death in Adam, because of the original sin. However, Jesus allows infants to approach Him, which means He wants to establish connection with them in order to revive them (Luke 18:15-16). Infant baptizing is the best view on the doctrine of baptism, as it provides the opportunity of faithful living in Jesus Christ from the early childhood. The NT indirectly supports infant baptism. As baptism is the same as circumcision (except the visual rite), then infant baptism is allowed and appreciated by God (Colossians 2:11-12; Acts 16:33). Moreover, Luke 18:15-16 proves that Jesus Christ allowed infant baptism, by calling the infants to approach Him. The baptism of household, which is mentioned all over the NT, implicitly means infant baptizing, as in the contemporary use of the word household young children were specifically included. The doctrine of infant baptism perfectly fits in other related doctrines: the doctrine of circumcision, the doctrine of faith, the doctrine of repentance, the doctrine of forgiveness and the doctrine of resurrection. It doesnt really contradict with any of these doctrines. The doctrine of circumcision is very similar to the doctrine of infant baptism, as the basis for them is Jesus Christ, who is seen as the fulfillment of the Promise. The doctrine of faith, repentance, forgiveness and resurrection perfectly fits in the definition of infant baptism: infants are baptized to be forgiven for sins, purified and be spiritually resurrected. Moreover, infant baptism encourages Christian living full of faith and repentance. The significance of the doctrine of infant baptism is the removal of the original sin from the infants. In such a way children may possess the relationship with Christ since early childhood. Infant baptizing can make a difference for Christian life in a way it allows the children to be under Christs influence and care since birth. Children are purified and become new born Christians, who need to be taught about love for God, faith, repentance and living by Ten Commandments. These doctrines are best understood and learned, when taught since childhood. I suppose that infant baptism can bring more true believers to the church.

World War One â€Life in the Trenches

World war one –life in the trenches When men volunteered to fight in world war one, on the Western front, little did they know about the conditions they would be living and fighting in the trenches, and for how long this would all go on for. The Great War lasted for four years even though many believed they would be home by Christmas 1914 on till 11/11/1918(today know better as remembrance day). (See source A) Even if the men did know about many of the conditions in the trench they would most likely have still joined as many were pressured by two ways to join. irstly by women as they would press little white feathers into their hand another way was they would walk past with a desecrated look in their faces as described by Rifleman Norman Demuth in source B (see source B) and secondly by propagandas(posters)see sources C,D and E for some examples. Even though the war lasted longer than expected the conditions didn’t get any better for soldiers as the shortage of food got worse, diseases became more common e. g.Trench foot (where your foot rotted off in your boot), more rats moved into the trenches, no way to remove toilet waste from the trenches and corpses lined many of the sides and floors of the trenches helping to spread disease. It got so bad in the trenches many solider turned to shooting themselves so they could be sent home and see their friend and family they had left behind. But if you were found guilty of a self-inflicted wound (SIW) in the British Army the ultimate penalty was capital (death by firing squad. )But 3,894 British soldiers were found guilty of SIW but none were executed but instead sent to prison for lengthy periods.Basic trench and layouts(see sources f and G) The first job of any soldiers getting to the western front who wanted to survive the machine gun fire from the triple alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) was to dig down, making trenches. Frontline trenches were usually about seven foot deep and six foot wi de. The front of the trench was known as the parapet. The top two or three feet of the parapet and the parados (the rear side of the trench) would consist of a thick line of sandbags to absorb any bullets or shell fragments.In a trench of this depth it was impossible to see over the top, so a two or three-foot ledge known as a fire-step, was added. Trenches were not dug in straight lines. Otherwise, if the enemy had a successive offensive, and got into your trenches, they could shoot straight along the line. Each trench was dug with alternate fire-bays and traverses. Duck-boards were also placed at the bottom of the trenches to protect soldiers from problems such as trench foot. Soldiers also made dugouts and funk holes in the side of the trenches to give them some protection from the weather and enemy fire.The front-line trenches were also protected by barbed-wire entanglements and machine-gun posts. Short trenches called saps were dug from the front-trench into No-Man's Land. The sap-head, usually about 30 yards forward of the front-line, were then used as listening posts. Behind the front-line trenches were support and reserve trenches. The three rows of trenches covered between 200 and 500 yards of ground. Communication trenches, were dug at an angle to the frontline trench and was used to transport men, equipment and food supplies. Food in the trenchesIn the trench food was basic but was for many it was better than what families were eating back at home. Daily rations for a British soldier consisted of 20 ounces of bread or 16 ounces of flour or 4 ounces of oatmeal instead of bread, 3 ounces of cheese, 5/8 ounces of tea, 4 ounces of jam or 4 ounces of dried fruit ,? ounce of salt, 1/36 ounce of pepper, 1/20 ounce of mustard, 8 ounces of fresh vegetables or 1/10 gill lime if vegetables not issued, ? gill of rum or 1 pint of porter , 20 ounces of tobacco, 1/3 ounces of chocolate (optional), 4 ounces of butter/margarine and 2 ounces of dried vegetables.One B ritish soldier said (source H) Tinned bully beef was the usual. we were always hungry. many times we only got one slice of bread,often without butter or jam,for breakfast and hard biscuits for tea. they were so hard that you had to put them on a hard surface and smash them with a stone. Meaning many did not get what they should have. Weapons One thing that played a big part in the war was the weapons They used * Handguns (e. g Webley Revolver, Webley Self-loading, Webley-Fosbery Automatic Revolver, Enfield revolver, Colt M1911 , Colt New Service, Smith ; Wesson M1917 revolver, Smith ; Wesson Model 10, Smith amp; Wesson Triple Lock, Lancaster pistol, Colt Model 1903 Pocket Hammerless, and Mauser C96) * Rifles(e. g. Lee-Enfield, Lee-Metford, Pattern 1914 Enfield, Martini-Enfield, Martini-Henry, Ross rifle , Winchester Model 1894, Winchester Model 1895, Winchester Model 1907, Type 30 rifle, Type 38 rifle, Type 38 cavalry rifle, Mauser-Vergueiro, andPeriscope rifle) * Machine Guns(e. g. Vickers machine gun, Maxim gun, Lewis Gun, Hotchkiss Mark I, M1895 Colt-Browning machine gun and M1917 Browning machine gun) * Shotguns(e. g Sawn-off shotgun and Double-barreled shotgun) * Anti-tank weapons(e. . Elephant gun) * Grenades(e. g Grenade, No 1 Hales; Rifle grenades, 2, 3, 4 Hales; No. s 5, 23, 36 Mills; No. 6 Grenade; No. s 8, 9 Double Cylinder Jam Tin; No. 13 Battye; No. 15 Ball grenade; No. 27 Smoke Grenade and No. 34 Egg grenade) * Mortars(e. g 2 inch Medium Mortar, Newton 6 inch Mortar, Stokes Mortar and Livens Projector) * Support Guns(E. g Vickers-Crayford rocket gun * Swords(e. g 1897 Pattern, 1908 and 1912 Pattern Cavalry Swords and Claymore) * Bayonets(e. g M1907 bayonet) See sources G-L for examples of weapons. DiseasesIn the trenches there was a lot of disease from a common cold to trench foot(foot rotting off). 1. Trench foot- Many soldiers fighting in World War One suffered from severe trench foot. Trench foot is an infection of the feet caused by cold, wet and insanitary conditions. In the trenches soldiers stood fur hours on end in waterlogged trenches without being able to remove wet socks or boots. The soilders feet would gradually go numb and the skin would turn red or blue. If untreated, trench foot could turn gangrenous and the result was amputation. 2. Shell shock-Early symptoms of shell shock included tiredness, irritability, giddiness, lack of concentration and headaches. Eventually the men suffered mental breakdowns making it impossible for them to remain in the front-line. Some came to the conclusion that the soldiers condition was caused by the enemy's heavy artillery. These doctors argued that a bursting shell creates a vacuum, and when the air rushes into this vacuum it disturbs the cerebro-spinal fluid and this can upset the working of the brain. 3. Trench mouth- It was a severe form of gingivitis that causes painful, infected, bleeding gums and ulcerations. . Trench fever is a bacterial infection that causes repeated cycles of high fever. Two different types of bacteria cause Trench fever. Bartonella quintana is carried by body lice and Bartonella henselae is carried by ticks. Symptoms are headaches, skin rashes, inflamed eyes and leg pains. Rats In the trenches Rats gathered in their millions infested everywere in trenches. There were two main types of rats in the trenches the brown and the black rat. Both were despised but the brown rat was especially feared. Gorging themselves on human they could grow to the size of a cat. Toilets Loss of life Conclusion

Scoping and Screening in Environmental Impact Assesssment

AN OPTIONAL ESSAY ON COMPARING AND CONTRASTING THE ROLES OF â€Å"SCREENING† AND â€Å"SCOPING† IN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT COURSE UNIT PLAN60411/PLAN40321 STUDENT ID :8528550 INTRODUCTION Environmental Impact assessment is a systematic process that examines, analyses the environmental consequences of development or development action in advance (Glasson,J. el al 2005).It is a logical process for establishing and sustaining an environment of quality by incorporating environmental considerations into decision making; specifying and clarifying the environmental aspects of development proposals to decision makers; indicating ways of mitigation and proffering project alternatives. It involves crucial stages for its optimum desirability and success these include â€Å"screening† and â€Å"scoping†. This paper of discourse will clearly compare and contrast the roles of these indispensible tools used in environmenta l impact assessment process.DEFINATION OF TERMS Screening is a mechanism which seeks to focus on those projects with potentially significant adverse environmental impact or whose impacts are not fully known. Scoping is the process of identifying from a broad range of potential problems, a number of priority issues to be addressed by an environmental impact assessment. (Wathem,P 2004) SCOPE OF STUDY From the foregoing, we can construe that they are essential stages of environmental impact assessment.Screening and scoping are both preliminary stages of an environmental impact assessment, and executed systematically in stages which must be done in a logical and professional manner, especially in the case of an integrated environmental impact assessment approach. They both have approaches for the scrutiny of a proposed project for consequently crucial in decision making. Both share a major role: the execution of a successful environmental impact assessment as an effective protection and management tool, as resourceful as possible.Despite what roles they have in common, these components of requisite have distinctive features and approaches in the roles they play in the environmental impact assessment process. Screening is focused on the significance of an impact in the environment, while scoping works on the range of issues to be defined after level of impact significance. They have different approaches to their functionality; screening uses the following approaches: * Schedule 1 (EU: Annex 1) Environmental impact assessment is mandatory * Schedule 2 (EU: Annex 2)Environmental impact assessment is discretionary, according to thresholds. * Schedule 3 (EU: Annex 3) Further consideration of Schedule 2 projects example environmental sensitivity. The EIA regulations England SI No 1824 2011 While scoping uses * Scoping Checklist * Scoping Matrix * Network programming European commission guidance on EIA: Scoping(2001) Screening uses the Initial Environmental Examination o r evaluation (IEE) as its checks and balances. On the other hand, scoping uses Scoping and report/opinion and public input and participation through a Terms of Reference (TOR).Project screening, precedes project scoping. Hence, screening must be carried out before project scoping. It is recommended and not mandatory to public involvement and stakeholders in screening, scoping differing from screening deems it is mandatory and recommendable for public participants to be involved at the stage of environmental impact assessment. CONCLUSION It is usually difficult to overemphasis the roles played by screening and scoping in environmental impact assessment irrespective of how far they are in contrast or how close they are in comparison.What is imperative is that the success of an environmental impact assessment depends largely on how well they are conducted. REFERENCES Glasson, J. et al (2005): Introduction to impact Assessment; Routledge, Abingdon, 3rd Edition Wathern, P. (2004): Enviro nmental Impact Assessment, Theory And Practice: west Sussex London Journal On Environmental Impact Assessment Training (2002); Topic 4, UNEP

Free sample - The White Power. translation missing

The White Power. The White PowerWhite power is a collective term used to describe white racial movement as they dominate almost every thing in the United States of America. This can be illustrated by looking at Ku Klux Klan, the name given to three different ancient and current supreme organizations in the United States. These clans are said to have boomed in different times (Leeper, 2000) .For example, the first Klan boomed in the years 1860s and became in existence in the 1870s and it was only available on the southern parts with their white costumes consisting of makes and robes. The second Klan came into existence in the early and mid 1920s while the third was known after the famous Second World War with their unforgettable records of practicing terrorism, a tactic that is believed to have been boosted by the second KKK. History holds that, during the reconstruction of Radical republican, the first Klan sought to restore superiority by engaging in criminal acts characterized by murder and so much violence against the blacks and white Republicans. This led the Federal government to put force acts, which advocated for the Klan prosecution (Leeper, 2000). The second Klan is said to be very different from the first Klan as it was a formal organization with its activities practiced country wide. This Klan taught about clean politics and advocated for Unity in American states. One of the biggest criticisms to this Klan is the fact that, some local groups went to extremes of attacking civilian houses and did other unnecessary violence. When you compare the history of these Klan’s you find that, the third Klan caused a very high destruction ,as it is believed to be responsible for the historic bombing of Birmingham 16th street Baptist church, that claimed lives of   so many civil rights workers and innocent children(Leeper,2000). Today many people believe that, the KKK is a rebellious organization as declared in 1999 by the city council of Charleston, in southern Carolina and the unforgettable campaigns made by the University of Louisville professor in the year 2004 to have the Klan declared illegal organization, so that it may be abolished from the campus. Currently the Klan is said to have so many members after the 2008 election of President Obama.The main objectives of the current membership is based on rising issues of illegal immigrants and increase of urban crimes.

Sound And the fury essays

Sound And the fury essays THE SOUND AND THE FURY William Faulkner's background influenced him to write the unconventional novel The Sound and the Fury. One important influence on the story is that Faulkner grew up in the South. The Economist magazine states that the main source of his inspiration was the passionate history of the American South, centered for him in the town of Oxford, Mississippi, where he lived most of his life. Similarly, Faulkner turns Oxford and its environs, "my own little postage stamp of native soil," into Yoknapatawpha County, the mythical region in which he sets the novel (76). In addition to setting, another influence on the story is Faulkner's own family. He had three brothers, black servants, a mother whose family was not as distinguished as her husband's, a father who drank a lot, and a grandmother called Damuddy who died while he was young. In comparison, the novel is told from the point of view of the three Compson brothers, shows the black servant Dilsey as a main character, h as Mrs.! Compson complain about how her family is beneath her husband's, portrays Mr. Compson as a alcoholic, and names the children's grandmother Damuddy who also dies while they are young. Perhaps the most important influence on the story is Faulkner's education, or lack thereof. He never graduated from high school, let alone college, and in later life wryly described himself as "the world's oldest sixth grader." He took insistent pride in the pre-intellectual character of his creativity, and once declined to meet a delegation of distinguished foreign authors because "they'd want to talk about ideas. I'm a writer, not a literary man" (76). In writing The Sound and the Fury, Faulkner pays no attention to normal literary work. He often uses incoherent and irrational phrases to bring the reader into the minds of the characters. This background, together with a believable plot, convincing characterization and important literary devices enables William Faulkne...

English legal system case report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

English legal system case report - Essay Example ited type of knife has been described by this section as one that has an automatically opening blade (Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act (c.37), 1959). However, in this knife, the blade should open when hand pressure is applied to a button or other device attached to the knife handle. Such offence attracts the following punishment, on summary conviction. For a first offence the offender will be sentenced to prison for a term that does not exceed three months or to a fine that is limited to  £50 or to both (Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act (c.37), 1959). In this case, the chief inspector charged the respondent with an offence under the provisions of section 1 of the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959. The charge was that on 26 October1959, the respondent had made an offer of sale with respect to a prohibited variety of knife. This knife opened automatically on pressure being applied to a device that was attached to the handle of the knife (Souper, 2008). The respondent consented to the police constable’s request to examine the knife. Thereafter, the latter confiscated the knife and submitted it to the superintendent of police. Subsequently, he returned to the shop and informed the respondent that the knife had been determined to be a flick knife and that he would be reported for offering it for sale (Souper, 2008). In court the appellant contended that the display of the knife in the shop window by the respondent with its price, constituted an offer of sale of the knife, in accordance with the provisions of the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959. This was contested by the respondent, who stated that he had never offered the knife for sale, as per the interpretation of the 1959 Act (Souper, 2008). The plaintiff’s main contention was that the display of Knife in the shop window does not amount to an offer. The court held that as this Act was devoid of a definition, the term offer for sale had to be determined from the law of contract. As a

Racism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Racism - Essay Example His therefore, provided a scientific basis to the claim. This may sound offensive today but, not then when it was a common knowledge, or so people were made to believe. Pearson (20-21) argues that the black race is a bad stock which he doubts can evolve to a higher type by them. He talks of a higher state of civilization which has been achieved through the struggle of race with race where the physically and mentally fitter race survives. Thus in the struggle between nations, the fit (militarily superior) always emerge victorious .This then calls for and justifies the domination of inferior races with superior ones through the use of military coercion. This sentiment is echoed by Spielvogel (520) who says that the domination is to show the strength and virility of the superior race. Putting superior and inferior races together to live in one soil according to Pearson (23) will only yield a relationship of a master and a servant or that of a slave-owner and a slave. Again, this stateme nt not only justifies European domination over other races, but it also calls for imperialistic exploitation of the so called inferior races. It is undoubtedly true that, Pearson seemed to be glorifying violence and its application on what he termed as the inferior races. The inferior races are so unfit even to fully exploit the resources in their environment, and as such Pearson (23), calls for their expulsion out of such lands by the superior race. This idea resonates with that of other Darwinists who posit that the inferior races have demonstrated their unfitness by losing out in the socio-economic struggle, all thanks to heredity endowment (Chase et al, 581). Unfit as they are, Pearson (32) suggests that this bad stock ought not to have existed at all, and to prove their worth, they should go to new lands as miners, cowboys and storekeepers. But, he cautiously warns of the mixing of the races. Superior race must eject the inferior ones and not mix or live alongside them lest it degenerate itself (45). The call for a homogenous superior race is clearly evident in Pearson’s work as he offers this as a solution to the problem in South Africa then: All black men in the fields and mines to be replaced by whites and the Kaffir are pushed back towards the equator (50). The unhealthy social status in South Africa then was attributed to, from Pearson’s racist point of view, mixing of the bad and good stock. Gobineau, referred to as the father of racism, appears to be in concordance with Pearson in this. He argued that the intermingling of races would untimely lead to the downfall of western civilization (Chase et al., 593). In his scientific view of a nation, Pearson (46) argues that an organized whole nation is kept up to a high pitch of internal efficacy by recruiting its numbers from the better stock, and kept to a high pitch of external efficacy by war with inferior races and with equal races. The contest here is over trade routes, food supply and sources of raw materials. By this he implies that, the Europeans can use their military strength to rob Africans and other so called inferior races, and even to instill fear and submission. Consequently, the latter being weary and ‘inferior’ has to undergo immense suffering. The superiority of the Europeans gives them the privilege and right to